The expanded universe – Do continuous tensions leave room for new physics?

On January 1, 1925, American astronomer Henry Norris Russell issued an amazing advertisement to the American Astronomical Society in Washington, DC: The observations made by astronomers Edwin Hubble showed that the milky road did not include the universe, and that countless galaxies are present after us. The results of Hubble revolutionized the point of view of humanity in the universe and continuing the challenge of astronomers so far, over the century.

Hubble gained these ideas from a handful of exciting black points on glass plates¹ Variable brightness stars known as Cepheids. He discovered these things while working at the Mount Wilson Observatory near Pasadina, California, including amazing “nebula” pictures in the Andromeda constellation, a mysterious being among the stars that seemed to be a whirlpool. The integrated variable stars have proven that the Andromeda Nebula was much further than the stars that included the Milky Way. So Andromeda was a separate galaxy – similar, but distinct, our own.

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Andromeda was not alone. The night sky was overcoming hundreds of spiral and irregular nebula, hiding among the stars. The road to the Milky Way did not last forever. Instead, the universe was full of other galaxies (now known as the number in hundreds of billions). This was just the beginning. Hubble has started searching for Cepheids in these distant galaxies so that they can determine their distances as well. By 1929, Hubble noticed a relationship between the distances of galaxies and the speeds that appeared to be retreating from the ground.

A few years ago, the astronomer Visto Slower reported a transformation into wavelengths (detained) from the main atomic signatures in the spectra of the nebula, indicating that things were going away from the ground². Along with Hubble distances, this data involves that the most vulnerable galaxies were moving faster, indicating that the universe should grow over time³. It was amazing revelation.

Theoretical physicists have already allowed this expansion of sports models, based on the 1915 general relativity theory of Albert Einstein.⁴ And Alexander Friedman accounts⁵ And George Limitry⁶. (Interestingly, Einstein looked at the expansion, but he rejected it.

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Fixed evidence to support the theory of the “Big Bang” in 1965 came with the discovery of the cosmic microwave background⁷ Radiation remains when the universe became transparent after about 380,000 years of the big explosion.

Astronomy, Farid Huil, formulated the attractive name on a radio program in 1949, to help explain the phenomenon of the public. Despite the interpretation of the term by many people as naive, he later said he did not intend to do so.

Since then, scientists have worked hard to determine the extent of the speed of expansion in the universe, and the duration of the length in which the big explosion occurred. It is a convincing story, with many transformations and turns. However, after 100 years, there is still a lot that we do not know. There may be room for some new physics.

Expansion

Hubble is a measure of the rate in which the universe is currently expanding. Its measurement³Hubble derives an initial value of about 500 km per second for each megaparic (where 1 PARSEC is 3.26 light years). In other words, for each Megaparsec, the galaxy is far away, we see it recedes 500 km per second faster.

Establish this again in time, the universe should be smaller and smaller than ever. Thus, the expansion rate can tell us about the age of the universe – how much time has been expanded. Hubble initially expected that the universe was only one billion years old. However, this was not logical, because at that time, he suggested the radioactive dating of the oldest known rocks on the ground that it is not less than three billion to four billion years. The Earth cannot be present for a longer period than the universe itself.

Astronomers have doubled their efforts to measure the expansion rate more accurately. By the 1970s, the constant decreased from 500 to 50 and 100, indicating that the universe was approximately 10 billion to 20 billion years.⁸. This frustrated factor from two, however, remained stubborn in the competition for another 30 years.

Fixed

Astronomers face tremendous challenges when measuring cosmic distances. Hubble relied on CEPHEID variables for its measurements – stars analysis that shows a cycle of brightness and fading. The more Cepheid, the more its impulsion cycle, a relationship that the astronomer has discovered Henrita Levitt.⁹. The rate in which the star beats is associated with the fundamental brightness. By comparing this brightness with the extent of the star, Hubble can count a distance.

Unfortunately, the measurement of distances has proven more challenging than it was clear to Hubble. In practice, the systematic effects – such as uncertainty in calibration in the tools, promoting distant stars by interfering with dust pills between stars, differences in the chemical structures of the stars, our inability to solve individual stars when they are combined and small sample sizes – are considered an ongoing obstacle.

Several pieces of the cosmic puzzle fell in place around the beginning of the twenty -first century. Digital detectors have replaced photographic panels, improving accuracy. Innovative ways to correct dust effects have been developed. More importantly, the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and a major project for the Hubble Fixed Measurement-which led it-enabled hundreds of Sved in 24 far away with 10 times the accuracy of the Earth’s telescopes.

These developments narrowed the value of the constant significantly¹⁰72 with a resolution of 10 %-in the end a solution to the “long factor” for discussion “on the distance scale. But only one problem solving revealed another problem. When the value of 72 was introduced in the latest cosmic models at that time, this implicitly means that the universe was present for only 9 billion years. However, by this stage, astronomers had worked that the oldest stars in the Milky Way were not less than 12 billion years.

A remarkable discovery in 1998 – that the expansion of the universe was not fixed but accelerated – it may provide a way out of this unwanted crisis. This cosmic acceleration is driven by what astronomers now indicate as “dark energy”, which is disgusting form of gravity that Einstein’s general theory of relativity allows. The universe that accelerates will not always expand as soon as it is. The presence of the dark energy of the universe allows to be older, and even its age is consistent with the stars in the Milky Way. However, however, there were more puzzles to solve them.

Short -lived consensus

Measurement of distances to galaxies is just one way to judge the rate of expansion in the universe. In 2001, a satellite was launched that provides a new and independent way for a fixed Hubble. Microwave contrast in Wilkinson (WMAP)¹¹ Measuring small differences across the sky at the temperature of the cosmic microwave background, at the level of a few parts in 100,000. By comparing these differences with cosmic models, the expansion rate can be concluded.

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By that time, cosmic models merged many strange ingredients. In addition to dark energy, strong evidence has arisen in the past the presence of a “cold dark substance”, a form of substance that is currently believed to include unlimited molecules in the big explosion. This dark matter does not emit or absorb light, but it is attractively interacting with the regular visible material that forms the luminous components of the universe, including stars and planets.

In general, the regular material constitutes only 5 % of the universe. Dark energy dominates the total density of the comprehensive energy of the universe, which includes 68 % of the total¹²The dark matter contributes 27 % remaining.

The installation of WMAP data has led to the value of 71 for the Hubble fixation – very close to 72 grade based on Cepheid Telescope Telescope Hubble. But this comfortable consensus in cosmology was short -term.

In 2009, the European Space Agency launched a satellite, called Planck, which was more sensitive than WMAP, to measure the cosmic microwave background. In 2013, Planck’s cooperation announced its first results¹³Including a vicious value of the vibrant that was significantly less than those found using Cepheids: 67.3, with a better accuracy than 2 %. In 2018, this was sharpened to value¹² From 67.4 ± 0.5, indicating better accuracy than 1 %.