Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H. & Cook, J. Beyond misinformation: understanding and coping with the Post-truth era. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 353–369 (2017).
Hui, L., Ng, X., Cruickshank, I. J. & Carley, K. M. Cross-platform information spread during the January 6th capitol riots. Soc. Netw. Anal. Min. 12, 133 (2022).
Pereira, F. B., Bueno, N. S., Nunes, F. & Pavão, N. Fake news, fact checking, and partisanship: the resilience of rumors in the 2018 Brazilian elections. J. Polit. 84, 2188–2201 (2022).
Lazer, D. M. J. et al. The science of fake news: addressing fake news requires a multidisciplinary effort. Sci. 359, 1094–1096 (2018).
Allcott, H. & Gentzkow, M. Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives 31, 211–236 (2017).
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B. & Lazer, D. Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science 363, 374–378 (2019).
Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K. & Larson, H. J. Measuring the impact of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on vaccination intent in the UK and USA. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 337–348 (2021).
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S. & Maibach, E. Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change. Global Challenges 1, 1-7 (2017).
Msughter, E. A. & YarAdua, S. Influence of Digital images on the propagation of Fake News on Twitter in Russia and Ukraine Crisis. SSRN 1-20 (2022).
Brashier, N. M. & Marsh, E. J. Judging Truth. Annual Rev. Psychol. 71, 499-515 (2020).
Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. The Psychology of Fake News. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 25, 388–402 (2021).
Vogels, E. A., Gelles-Watnick, R. & Massarat, N. Teens, Social Media and Technology 2022. 10. www.pewresearch.org (2022).
Rideout, V., Peebles, A., Mann, S. & Michael, R. B. The Common Sense Census: Media Use by Tweens and Teens. (2021).
Common Sense. Teen News Engagement: Key Findings and Toplines Key Findings. www.commonsense.org/research. (2019).
Kahan, D. M. Ideology, motivated reasoning, and cognitive reflection. Judgm. Decis. Mak. 8, 407–424 (2013).
Kahneman, D. Thinking, Fast and Slow. (2011).
Evans, J. S. B. T. & Stanovich, K. E. Dual-process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 8, 223–241 (2013).
Frederick, S. Cognitive reflection and decision making. J. Economic Perspect. 19, 25–42 (2005).
Bago, B., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 149, 1608–1613 (2020).
Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition 188, 39–50 (2019).
Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Who falls for fake news? The roles of bullshit receptivity, overclaiming, familiarity, and analytic thinking. J. Pers. 88, 185–200 (2020).
Ross, R. M., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Beyond ‘fake news’: Analytic thinking and the detection of false and hyperpartisan news headlines. Judgm. Decis. Mak. 16, 484–504 (2021).
Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J. & Wänke, M. The truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Personality Social Psychol. Rev. 14, 238–257 (2010).
Henderson, E. L., Westwood, S. J. & Simons, D. J. A reproducible systematic map of research on the illusory truth effect. Psychon Bull. Rev. 29, 1065–1088 (2022).
Bacon, F. T. Credibility of repeated statements: memory for trivia. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. 5, 241–252 (1979).
Arkes, H. R., Hackett, C. & Boehm, L. The generality of the relation between familiarity and judged validity. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 2, 81–94 (1989).
DiFonzo, N., Beckstead, J. W., Stupak, N. & Walders, K. Validity judgments of rumors heard multiple times: the shape of the truth effect. Soc. Influ. 11, 22–39 (2016).
Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements. Psychon Bull. Rev. 26, 1705–1710 (2019).
Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, K., Marsh, E. J. & B. & Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 144, 993–1002 (2015).
Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D. & Rand, D. G. Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 147, 1865–1880 (2018).
Fazio, L. K. & Sherry, C. L. The Effect of Repetition on Truth judgments Across Development. Psychol. Sci. 31, 1150–1160 (2020).
Toplak, M. E. & Flora, D. B. Resistance to cognitive biases: longitudinal trajectories and associations with cognitive abilities and academic achievement across development. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 34, 344–358 (2021).
Kokis, J. V., Macpherson, R., Toplak, M. E., West, R. F. & Stanovich, K. E. Heuristic and analytic processing: age trends and associations with cognitive ability and cognitive styles. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 83, 26–52 (2002).
Suzuki, A., Megumi, A. & Yasumura, A. Developmental Changes in Cognitive Bias. Psychology 12, 293–303 (2021).
Shtulman, A. & Young, A. G. The development of cognitive reflection. Child. Dev. Perspect. 17, 59–66 (2023).
De Neys, W. & Feremans, V. Development of heuristic bias detection in elementary school. Dev. Psychol. 49, 258–269 (2013).
Mevel, K. et al. Developmental frontal brain activation differences in overcoming heuristic bias. Cortex 117, 111–121 (2019).
McGrew, S., Breakstone, J., Ortega, T., Smith, M. & Wineburg, S. Can Students Evaluate Online Sources? Learning From Assessments of Civic Online Reasoning. Theory and Research in Social Education. 46, 165–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1416320 (2018).
Nygren, T. & Guath, M. Swedish teenagers’ difficulties and abilities to determine digital news credibility. Nordicom Rev. 40, 23–42 (2019).
Pennycook, G. et al. Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. Nature 592, 590–595 (2021).
Guess, A., Nagler, J. & Tucker, J. Less than you think: prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Sci. Adv. 5, eaau4586 (2019).
Young, A. G. & Shtulman, A. How children’s cognitive reflection shapes their science understanding. Front. Psychol. 11 (2020).
Smelter, T. J. & Calvillo, D. P. Pictures and repeated exposure increase perceived accuracy of news headlines. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 34, 1061–1071 (2020).
Calvillo, D. P. & Smelter, T. J. An initial accuracy focus reduces the effect of prior exposure on perceived accuracy of news headlines. Cogn. Res. Princ Implic 5 (2020).
Brashier, N. M., Eliseev, E. D. & Marsh, E. J. An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth. Cognition 194 (2020).
De keersmaecker, J. et al. Investigating the robustness of the Illusory Truth Effect Across Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability, need for Cognitive Closure, and cognitive style. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 46, 204–215 (2020).
Unkelbach, C. Reversing the truth effect: learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 33, 219–230 (2007).
Alter, A. L. & Oppenheimer, D. M. Uniting the tribes of Fluency to Form a Metacognitive Nation. Personality Social Psychol. Rev. 13, 219–235 (2009).
Unkelbach, C. & Rom, S. C. A referential theory of the repetition-induced truth effect. Cognition 160, 110–126 (2017).
Young, A. G., Powers, A., Pilgrim, L. & Shtulman, A. Developing A Cognitive Reflection Test for School-Age Children.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328031202 (2018).
Sirota, M., Dewberry, C., Juanchich, M., Valuš, L. & Marshall, A. C. Measuring cognitive reflection without maths: development and validation of the verbal cognitive reflection test. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 34, 322–343 (2021).
Pennycook, G., Binnendyk, J., Newton, C. & Rand, D. G. A practical guide to doing behavioral research on fake news and misinformation. Collabra Psychol. 7 (2021).
Kim, A. & Dennis, A. R. Says who? The effects of presentation format and source rating on fake news in social media. MIS Q. 43, 1025–1039 (2019).
Kim, A., Moravec, P. L. & Dennis, A. R. Combating fake news on Social Media with source ratings: the effects of user and Expert Reputation ratings. J. Manage. Inform. Syst. 36, 931–968 (2019).
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Software]. Preprint at https://www.r-project.org/ (2023).
Ben-Shachar, M., Lüdecke, D. & Makowski, D. Effectsize: estimation of effect size indices and standardized parameters. J. Open. Source Softw. 5, 2815 (2020).
Holm, S. A. Simple sequentially rejective multiple Test Procedure. Scand. J. Stat. 6, 65–79 (1979).